Human Resource Intercountry Differences Essay

I. Introduction Human Resource management consists in the planning, organization, development and coordination, as well as control of techniques, that enable the company to promote the efficient performance of the personnel and at the same time allows indirectly and directly that the people who collaborate within the company will reach their personal objectives. Managing Human Capital means to conquer and to maintain people in the organization, who will work and give the maximum of themselves, with a positive and favorable attitude. HR represents all those things that cause that the personnel remains in the organization. The following work will attempt to answer the question Can Inter-country differences affect HRM. What are some of the ways you expect â€Å"going international† will affect HR activities in your business, in order to answer this question this project will open with a review of the literature that has been written on the issues raised by the question above. It should be noted that a vast amount of writing has been done on these issues but only a few of them dimmed to provide the most benefit to the purposes and intent of this assignment have been sited. see more:welcome address for annual day The reason why going international affects not only HRM but the whole company in general is because organisations are not only based on elements like technology, machines or information; but â€Å"the key of a right company is its management and the people who participate in it†, for this reason if we take in count that each person is a phenomenon subject that is affected for the influence of many variables then we can understand why going international will affect the main resource of the company which is the people and therefore the organization will have to adapt all the different areas of the company in order to meet the differences of the environment that eventually will affect the employees and the company itself. This paper makes a review of Inter-country Differences towards HRM having in count the cultural differences and the effect that these have on Human Resource going international. To further illustrate this point, the group also takes a look at what has been written on the relationship between more fundamental issues of HR management and the general concept of HR  globalisation paying particular attention to the subject matter of the above question. These issues that include, Cultural, Economical, Labour factors among some others are discussed in the body of this assignment bringing out the major difficulties that will be faced in each of these areas, by HR management departments in organisations that have opted to go international. Examples are drawn from a variety of both secondary and primary sources and they serve to ilustrate the points that have been made. The work concludes with some suggestions as to how the difficulties that have been identified in the course of this work could be surmounted by HR managers. II. Inter-country DifferencesAs business nowadays becomes more global, Human Resource Management becomes a bigger and more interesting issues for all organizations. The differences between each countries in terms of cultures, economics, legislation, or even environment have both direct and indirect influence to the owners, managers, employees, and other people related to the company. These influences cover the areas of Human Resource activities, which are recruitment and selection, training and development, and performance and reward management. Several years ago, researchers asked senior international human resources managers, â€Å"what are the key global pressures affecting human resource management practices in your firm?† and the three that emerged were:(Gourlay, S. 1999) Example 1:The case study called Cross-cultural Assessment over a Cup of Coffee from Vance (2006) could be one of the good examples showing how international difference would affect Human Resource. According to the case study, Livia is a consultant who work in the United Kingdom. She was once conducting an organizational study in Hungary with various groups of managers from different countries. During her study, she interviewed with American managers and she had the feeling that she was not welcome by them. On the other hand, the Hungarians offered her coffee. Therefore, she assumed that Americans were rude and lack of hospitality skills. In terms of doing business, Americans had an attitude of â€Å"get down to business† One the other hand, she thought Hungarians seemed to be more relationship oriented since they spent more time getting to know people. Therefore, she questioned herself whether it was because the culture differences or could be because Americans drink less coffee than Hungarians  or Americans do not like Hungarian coffee. The answers would base on individual overviews. Example 2:In china, special insurance should cover emergency evacuations for serious health problems, and medical facilities in Russia may not meet international standards. (Gourlay, S. 1999)Example 3:One of the major challenges that might be encountered by HR is that of finding the right people for the jobs that have been exported. A person trained in India and who has never left the country to experience aspects of the English culture, is recruited to work in a call centre set up for a UK based bank. It is obvious that such a person will have problems interacting with customers in England who make calls to the call centre. It is a known fact that often, callers have been frustrated with these call centre workers to extent that some of them have moved their accounts to other banks. This defeats the whole purpose of the organisation’s move towards out sourcing which is to maximize profit by reducing cost in the sense that when customers continue to move their accounts to other banks with UK based call centres, it will get to the point where the bank will loss all business to it’s competitors. Take note that in recent times, this trend has been so rampart, such that some banks and Nat West being an example now use the phrase the phrase UK based call centres to in their adverts to attract new customers. In theory, it has been proved by many researchers that differences in countries have effects to Human Resource Management. In summary, there are some main factors that have a great impacts on managing organizational human resources, including:CulturalInternationalization of HRManagementLabour Cost FactorsEconomicRelations Factors2.1) Cultural FactorsThese is dealing with; language, religion, value, attitudes, education, social organization, technology, politics, and laws of the country. Example 4:The use of language has critical implications because of differences in languages from one country to another country. So in the interviews or appraisal feedback meeting people managers must be aware of cultural differences covering. Example 5: The cultural norms of the Far East system affect the typical  Japanese worker’s view of his or her relationship to an employer as well as influence how that person works. Japanese workers have often come to expect lifetime employment in return for their loyalty, for instance. As well, incentive plans in Japan tend to focus on the work group, while in the West the more usual prescription is still to focus on individual worker incentives. Example 6:A few months ago in London a Muslim woman that was working in a restaurant as a waitress sue the restaurant over claims that she was fired for refusing to wear a dress that suggested she was â€Å"sexually available.†. Her cultural and Religions believes were first and for this reason she didn’t use this dress that as she said :†If you put this dress on, you might as well be naked†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (www.upi.com, 2008)2.1.1. Dimension to cultureExample 7:Hofstede (1980) stated that there are four main cultural dimensions affecting the international organization which include power distance, uncertainty avoidance, individualism, and masculinity. He has said that Japanese have high uncertainty avoidance tend to concern more on saving faces and not making people feel embarrassed in public (Jackson, 2002). Example 8:When you compared several thousand IBM employees in over 50 countries using attitude questionnaires. Significant differences are found between employees in one country and another, despite their similar jobs and membership of an organization which is renowned for its strong corporate culture. The dimension of culture is as follows:Power distance: the nature of people, marked is the status differences between people with high and low power. Example 9:In Colombia employees try to be more relaxed and les formal within their professional relationships, the CEO of a company could be very close to the lower level of the company without jeopardizing the Company’s interests, stricted hierarchy rules are not taking in account. Individualism :how people related to others it can be individuals or groups. Example 10:For example, American’s emphasis on individuality main help to explain why European managers have more employment related problems, for instance in relation to laying off workers. (Gourlay, S. 1999)Managing  Global Human ResourcesUncertainty avoidance :primary mode of activity, this measure of flexibility and need for rules. Masculinity or femininityLong term or short term orientation – Time orientation is the most effect to human resource management because different cultures have different attitudes towards time. Time-keeping is treated tolerantly in underdeveloped societies – with few things to do, one can do them in any order. But in industrialized countries there are many things to do and they must be co-ordinated with other people. Hence, time becomes more important and is regarded as something precise and highly significant. Cultural AspectsDressFoodClimateHousingCross cultural differences in work place – Cross culture differences which can affect human resource management in work place are easily seen in the following situations:How interviews should be conductedHow training should be deliveredHow managers should act with their subordinatesHow negotiations should be conductedHow people should be paid for workIn another theory, Tayeb (2005) compared the attitude of employees t owards power and authority between in high-inequality cultures and low inequality cultures. He found that in high-inequality cultures, people tend to be afraid of power, employees are less likely to confront with their managers. The management style is likely to be autocratic and decisions are usually made by a few senior managers. Instructions always come from the top to the lower levels who are expected to follow the orders. In contrast, in low-inequality cultures, the management style is totally different. Employees are still respect their managers but feel more comfortable to give their opinions. Unlike in high-inequality culture, junior employees can be part of the decision makers. Another example given by Tayeb (2005) is the overview on leadership behaviours. He concluded that Japanese and British leadership are different. The Japanese employees would see a manager as a good leader if he/ she spends extra time at work, frequently meets with members and subordinates to discuss about work progress and evaluates group performance. In comparison, the British employees prefer seeing a manager show them how to use equipments in the organization and provide them an opportunity to make suggestions and discuss a problem with a group. Example 11:A company taking its production abroad could get highly benefits, in Barranquilla,  Colombia is a multinational company that produce umbrellas, but taking in count that Colombia has 20 bank holidays during the whole year, the company had to move all the production plant to a different country where there where less bank holidays and the production could be opened for longer days during the year. 2.2) Economic FactorsEconomic systems among countries also translate into intercountry differences in human resource practices. In free enterprise systems, the need for efficiency tends to favor human resource policies that value productivity, efficient workers, and staff cutting where market forces dictate. Moving along the scale toward more socialist systems, human resource practices tend to shift toward preventing unemployment, even at the expense of sacrificing efficiency. All the differences in the systems as Economic systems are directly translated in differences in human resources management politics and policies due to the fact that some companies agree more with the idea of a free enterprise than others. 2.3) Labour Cost FactorsIn labour costs may also produce differences in HR practices. High labour costs can require a focus on efficiency and on HR practices (like pay-for-performance) aimed at improving employee performance. Intercountry differences in labour costs are substantial. Example 12:Nike, and American company, producing and marketing sports shoes has had a bitter experience with out sourcing it’s factory. In the nineties, Nike saw that it’s cost of production was becoming too high them to maintain a profit and to keep up with their competitors and so they set production factory in Cambodia which proved to be a solution to their demise in the sense that cost of production was greatly reduced while maintaining the quality of the goods produced. Had things gone on like this, critics who argue that there are instances where labour can be successfully exported without resulting in a fall in the quality of the work done would have been held correct. However as earlier mentioned, what those critics failed to do was to look at other areas of HR which might be affected in a Negative way as a result of this. In Nikes case problems arose when it was made known to potential consumers of their products that the Cambodians who worked in  factories where subjected to work long hours in near slave situations, and a call was made for the boycott of Nike products. The Cambodians themselves had no issues neither with their pay or working condition. To them it was just the way of life to work such long hours under the situation in which they did and for such little money. In fact, they considered themselves better off as opposed to other Cambodians. What happened in this case was that a comparison was made by the working conditions in these factories, to those in the American offices. Example 13:Working hours and labor cost are closely related with this economical factors, the working hours and the compensation for it are different from country to country and make a substantial difference in labor cost. Example 14:In Germany, for instance, codetermination is the rule. Here, employees have the legal right to a voice in setting company policies. On the other hand, in many other countries, the state interferes little in the relations between employers and unions. Lastly, the difference in industrial relations factor of each country has a great influence on the relationship among the workers and the employees in the organization, and the unions.(Gourlay, S. 1999)Example 15 :France and Belgium is a good example regarding to the industrial relations factor. In the past, Belgium used to be a dependent province of France. Even though, later on, it has been independent, some cultures from France still impact Belgium people until now. One of them would be the French language that has been used as a legal  language for Belgium government. However, in terms of the influence of trade unions, they are totally different (Chris, 2004). Example 16:In France, the number of trade union members are quite low. More than half of the French companies stated that the number of union members is lower than 10% which is the lowest score among other European countries. The main reason is because French unions do not offer any collective services. On the other hand, in Belgium, more than half of companies reviewed that about 50% of workforce are union members. This is because there is a competition among the group of three powerful union organizations at the national, regional, and company level (Chris, 2004). III. International Human Resources ActivitiesGoing international is a crucial decision for a business in all of its aspects. As for the HR activities in a business, there are other small sub-factors that need further consideration, in special, the current day to day running of Human Resource Management. The reason why this is changeable overseas is owed to the same aspects that other countries or regions will conduct and perceive practices. It can be said that one of the main concerns for moving into a global business is based on cultural differences. One of the decisions that firms need to make is on the re-design and structure of the organization. This include the adaptation for a new cultural environment for the whole process of HR planning and strategies. This decision involves choosing the forms, understanding the stages of development, and implementing the strategy through each functional level of the organization, including HR management. To support and advise on the firm’s strategic direction, HR managers must understand the organizational design issues that firms face, the evolving phases in the development of the firm as it grows internationally, and the most common methods of implementing human resource strategy within those designs and phases (Briscoe & Schuler, 2004). International Human Resource Management is characterized by increased complexity of HR activities, cultural awareness and tolerance, stronger relationship with employees and their families, different expectations and requirements of employees across cultures, management of cross-cultural  teams and diluted risk on the business front and increased risk on the people front. When a company is recruiting, the search for new employees should include opportunities for all types of sub-cultures including age, gender, ethnicity, nationality, etc provided that the environmental circumstances are appropriate. If, for instance, an organization advertises job vacancies in only one source, such as in magazines mainly destined for young people or for the male sex, it is rather possible that employers would be limiting vacancies to young males only. Expansion of business horizons implies greater challenges in terms of human resource management. The different IHRM activities include normal HR activities like human resource planning, performance management, compensation management, training, etc., but at a higher level of complexity. The specific IHRM activities include expatriate assignment management, expatriate training, management of cross-cultural work-teams, cross-cultural training etc. 3.1) Recruitment and SelectionThe procedures of selection and recruitment process will be different because of the society and internal organizational factors. In developed countries, such as the US, the formal procedures including interviews and written tests will be used to select the most suitable person. In developing countries such as some in the Middle East and Africa, the recruitment process is normally done through informal networks of relatives and friends. (Tayeb, 2005). Example 17:The international Nike case problem emerged when Cambodians working in the manufacturing sector were told they have being paid less than if they were working in Nike Company home country. However, the Cambodians themselves were in fact glad to be paid the salary sum, despite the boycott because normally no Cambodians are given the opportunity to receive such salary for the job they have been doing. The report called the situation a case of slavery, despite it was found that the workers themselves were satisfied with the salaries. The example above stands out job expectations from different countries, hence the necessity of organizations to understand international human resource protectionist laws that can affect the current HR practices in the home country. 3.1.1 Criteria of SelectionExample 18:The criteria of selection is also different. In Japan, companies prefer selecting someone with a wide range of educational qualifications and will be then trained to perform cross- functional jobs. The main purpose is to make the internal employees flexible and skilful so they are able to perform any jobs when necessary (Tayeb, 2005). In the US, the criteria are base on specialism. They tend to employ new skilful people who are able to perform the jobs without further training. In Britain, the combination of the two is used. Applicants are selected on a fit-the-job basis, and are then trained to perform that specific job properly (Tayeb, 2005). For recruitment method, both in Turkey and Israel tend to use the current employees as a main method to fill the manager positions. However, the second source in Turkey is using recruitment companies or consultancy while in Israel using newspaper advertisement. In selection process, 94% of the Israel companies use interview as a tool to select the applicants while in Turkey, filling application form is the most popular method (Chris, 2004). 3.2) Training Most of the companies use induction and on-the- job training as the main training method. However, nowadays, further training is necessary since competencies arise. While some countries take a form of informal training, others take the form of either in-house tuition or externally – provided services. In the past, employee training is widely used in UK. Now,  it has been replaced by more formal courses. For developing countries, skill training is still necessary. The relationship between the supervisor and the new recruit is similar to teacher and pupil, or even parent and child. In many countries, training policies and practices are normally not required by the law. However, some countries such as France, medium and large companies are required by law to spend some percentage of their annual turnover on employee training. Apart from France, Japanese, German and US companies also spend a sum of money and time on training. (Tayep, 2005)3.3) Job expectations and motivation policiesIt is obvious to agree that the majority of people have their own goals and try their best to achieve them. Different societies with a variety of cultures and environment may have different views of job expectations and motivation (Tayeb, 2005). Example 19:According to the employee attitude survey conducted in English and Indian organisations by Tayeb (1988), it can be concluded that ‘being creative and imaginative at work’ and ‘good pay and fringe benefits’ were more important to the English employees than to the Indian employees. On the other hand, ‘having an opportunity to learn new things’ and ‘having freedom and independence’ were more important to the Indian employees than the English employees. 3.4) Performance appraisal, reward, and promotion policiesIn many traditional countries such as in the Middle East, loyalty to a superior is more important that effective performance. In addition, harmony in the organisation can help it run smoothly instead of using performance measures. Example 20:Segalla’s (1998) conducted the research on 100 European managers and found that different countries have different aspects to human resource decisions. Promoting managers in German is based on objective performance. French managers, on the other hand, promoted on a basis o seniority or group loyalty. Regarding to the redundancy, more than 70% of the English respondents would have made redundant a middle-aged, high-salary manager with average performance. On the other hand, German respondents prefer discharging young managers who could find new jobs easier. French respondents were more likely to redundant a younger average quality manager than an older one (Tayeb, 2005). IV.RecommendationsWhen a company decides to  expand internationally, it must follow the same steps that its local employees accomplish when incorporating for its first time, but with a higher care in details and considering certain requirements that are fundamental for the success of the new project of going international. The steps that we recommend are the following:Every company that is planning in the short or long term going international must do a rigorous selection having in account not only the technical knowledge, but the adaptability that can have an employee in the future. The acquired experience is important also (labour, level of education, language skills,etc.), since the majority of companies looks for candidates who have evolved very well in similar positions in other parts of the world, making easier to achieve the goals of the new challenge. In the case of a manager or other employee who is going away to make a position of the company in a determined country, the HR department is due to prepare this person as far as the customs that will find, the language that will be spoken, the conditions of life that will find and all the information required in order to accomplish successfully this challenge. In order to enable the employees so that the organisation’s politics and strategies prevails abroad the company will have to stablish some measurement process, owing to the fact that if the company is well prepared the impact by the cultural differences will not affect the success of the business. There is always very important that the company majes an evaluation or the organisation’s strategy, goals and also a very detail SWOT analys which will help the company to have a complete analysis and in this way they HR deaprment will be prepare in how the challenges of going abroad will influence the company in its future performance.. Another step occurs with employee that will be transfer abroad, who will need all the information concerning the country destiny and some abilities of adaptation in order to make this person to fit in the new site of work. Compensations is a point of extreme importance when going international, because costs of life are very different and the remuneration must be in agreement with this item, or with majors incentives or a better wage. Finally, the true key to succeed in the mission of taking a company’s operation abroad is to enable in the best way possible each one of the employees involve in this process, for each one of the persons that participate in the internationalisation having the information and knowing beforehand the challenges that will take place and how to handle it will make the differences in which companies succeed and which doesn’t. V.ConclusionIn a world with so immediate changes and where internationalization is increasing every day, a good HRM will be fundamental so that the companies that wishes to project to go international can, prevail in foreign marketsGlobalisation, opening, unification, are referring terms to the new world order that has been displaying with great force in the last years. The companies have been part fundamental of these events and they do not remain apart from all the internationalization process that has come displaying in all sense. For such reason after writing this report is understood that the change process includes all the directed activities to help the organization so that it successful adopts new attitudes, new technologies and new forms to make businesses, due to the fact that the new challenges that HRM faces in a world where the globalisation, not only of the companies, is latent. We already treated the steps that must follow a company so that their employees can be successful abroad, that is to say, how he is due to select, to enable and to compensate dices the new challenges which they are going away to face. Nevertheless, other factors exist to very consider like the remarkable differences as far as the legal systems, the availability of manpower, etc., that exist in the countries. Like final conclusion, the adventure can affirm that to look for new courses always will bring challenges. The best thing, therefore, is to prepare  itself of the best form and to adapt completely to the new specifications that are in this difficult but exciting way. Writing this report has made us understood that the change process includes all the directed activities to help the organization so that it successful adopts new attitudes, new technologies and new forms to make businesses. The effective administration of the change of going international, allows the transformation of the strategy, the processes, the technology and the people to reorient the organization to the profit of its objectives, to maximize its performance and to always assure the continuous improvement in an atmosphere of businesses/ money changer. References (Part A)Chris B., Wolfgang M., and Michael M. (2004), Human Resource Management in Europe: Evidence of Convergence?, Elsevier Ltd Publisher. Hofstede, G (1980), Culture’s Consequences: International differences in Work Related Value, Sage Publications, Beverly Hills. Jackson, T (2002), International HRM: A Cross Cultural Approach, Sage Publications. Keegan, W, (2002), Global Marketing Management, 7th edition, UK, Prentice Hall, p. 117. Segalla, W. and De Menzes, L. (1998), ‘High Commitment Management in the UK: evidence from the workplace industrial relations survey, and employers’ manpower and skills practices survey’, Human Relations, vol. 51, no. 4, pp. 485-515. Tayeb, M. H. (1988), Organizations and National Culture: A Comparative Analysis, London: Sage Publications. Tayeb, M. H. (2005), International Human Resource Management. New York: Oxford University Press Inc. Vance, Charles M. (2006), Challenges and Opportunities in International Human Resource Management, M.E. Sharpe Inc. Publisher pg 57. Cardy, Robert L. â€Å"Future-Oriented and Organizational-Lxvel Approaches to Job Analysis.† In K.P. Carson (Chair) Future Directions in Job Analysis. Symposium presented at the Annual Conference of the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology, San Francisco (April 1993). Katz, Daniel and Robert L. Kahn. The Social Psychology of Organizations. New York: John Wiley, 1978. Probst, S Raub, and Kai Romhardt, Adapted from Managing Knowledge Building Blocks for Success,John Wiley, 1998 (p.34)Miller, Janice,S.,and Cardy,Robert, Technology and Managing People: Keeping the â€Å"Human† in Human Resources, Journal of Labour research,Bray, P. (1999) Do you know what you want?, Sunday Times, Knowledge Management Supplement, 25 April, p.15. Gourlay, S. (1999) Knowledge Management and HRM, Croners Employee Relations (Review), March, Issue 8, pp. 21-27. Human Resource Management 11th Edition Author; Gary Dessler. Managing Global Human Resource, Going international, Managing the expatriation experience, Marc Raynaud. Harvey, C. & Morouney, K. (1998) Organization structure and designUPI (2008). Suit Waitress Fired for Refusing Dress. Available from:http://www.upi.com/Top_News/2008/12/19/Suit_Waitress_fired_for_refusing_dress/UPI-69741229747725/ [Achieved on 4 February 2009]Bibliography (Part A)Black, J.S., Morrison, A., & Gregersen, H.B. 1999. Global Explorers: The Next Generation of Leaders. Evans, P., Pucik, V., Barsoux, J. 2002. The Global Challenge: Frameworks for International Human Resource Management. Mendenhall, M.E., Kà ¼hlmann, T.M. & Stahl, G.K. 2001. Developing Global Business Leaders: Policies, Processes, and Innovations. Westport, CT: Quorum Books. Becker, B. E. & Gerhart, B. 1996. Human Resources and Organizational Performance: Progress and Prospects. Academy of Management Journal (special issue: Human Resources and Organizational Performance)Becker, B.E. & Huselid, M.A. 1998. High Performance Work Systems and Firm Performance: A Synthesis of Research and Managerial Implications. Research in Personnel and Human Resources ManagementBecker, B.E., Huselid, M.A., Pickus, P.S., &

The Types Of Threats, The Impact And Four Steps The Process

BackgroundDisasters, may it be natural or man-made, are occurrences that are inevitable to businesses and companies. They may take the form of an earthquake or informational theft that is equally tragic to the affected company. Romano emphasizes that â€Å"companies are starting to realize that they need to protect their assets both informational and physical.† (1995,P.43). And so, companies and corporations have developed ‘Disaster Management’; as the name implies, it is a process of dealing, if not preventing, disasters done to companies. According to Rike, â€Å"disaster management is divided into three kinds: natural threats, technical difficulty and human activities.† (2003,P.26). Rike stresses that disaster management isn’t only concerned about natural disasters but also technical and man-made disasters that are relatively abundant in most companies which returns a loss of income.DefinitionDisaster management, according to Clark, is â€Å"the process of preparing for mitigating, responding to, and recovering from a disaster.† (1995, P. 41). Clark’s statement shows that disaster management is not only about what companies should do before or during or after a disaster, but what companies should do from before a disaster arises up to the time that the company needs to recover from the damage that the particular disaster brings to the company.OutlineThis report aims to discuss the types of threat, the impact and four-step process of disaster management and why companies should prepare themselves even before a disaster occurs.The Types of ThreatRike identifies that disaster management has three sub categories namely: â€Å"Natural or Environmental threats, technical hazard and human activities† (2003, P.26).The Natural or Environmental threats that Rike was referring to are the natural calamities that we are accustomed to such as earthquakes, floods, fire, storms, etc. that can cause physical or psycholog ical damage to the companies. Rike states that â€Å"human life is always the first consideration in any emergency or disaster.† (2003, P.26) and there are no other greater threats to human safety than natural calamities because of its destructive power.Technical Hazards can be grouped in seven namely: â€Å"power outage, gas leak, software failure, biological contamination, train derailment, toxic spill and electrical shortage† (Rike, 2003, P.26). And human activities are the threat that is concerned about human errors, miscalculation and faults due to lack of skill or ignorance. There is a saying that â€Å"No man (or woman) is perfect.† And so, it is necessary for companies to prepare themselves for these kinds of disasters to avoid any loss of valuable income.Impact of DisasterOne type of the impact of disaster is the development of companies (Rike, 2003, P.27). Companies should be aware of its competition because its survival depends on how well a certain c ompany performs against these competitors and should surpass the development of other companies to be able to maintain a competitive edge over the others.The second type is the Economy which dictates whether a certain company should act. If a certain disaster hits a particular state, city or country, its economy may well be affected and soon it affects the production/income of the company. The third is the people’s lives; a company cannot profit on its own, it depends on its workers to do the little things that bring the huge amount of money into the companies. So, companies should protect and maintain the well-being of its employees and make sure that they are in the same page to be able to assure them a great outcome.Four Steps of the ProcessIn the first step is that management have ability to support (Rike, 2003, P.27).   The company should be able to have a disaster management that can support its business. The second step is about the analysis risk (Rike, 2003, P.27). The Disaster Management should do an analysis risk that, as the name implies, analyses the risks involved in a particular disaster and its recovery. The third step is that the company needs to spend much time on data collection and preparing the written plan (Rike, 2003, P.30).The company should do an actual planning of the disaster management to make things organized to minimize undone tasks especially when it comes to recovery because time is of the essence for most companies. The last step is that test the plan (Rike, 2003, P.31).   A plan will not be complete without testing it. The company should test it under the most hazardous situations to maximize its productivity and to be able to identify its flaws.ConclusionThe report has discussed in detail what disasters are and how and why companies should prepare themselves/recover from the said disasters and how they can affect the company’s profits. The report will be very useful for companies to identify the activities th at should be done in order to protect what is most important to them, which is the income, because a disaster creates a thin line between bankruptcies and an incredible comeback from a disaster.

Assignment 1 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 9

Assignment 1 - Essay Example to be comfortable, relaxed and informal, lots of discussions with everyone participating, teammates are free to express their feelings and ideas as well(West,2012).On the other hand an ineffective team is characterized by low unity as pertains team purpose, team seems to stay away from discussing its maintenance, there is an atmosphere of indifference in the group characterized by tension or boredom, an individual’s personal feelings are usually concealed, and there is no proper resolution of disagreements by the team (Zepeda, 2004). On their first meeting, each member should introduce himself/herself, share information in regard to their backgrounds, experience and interests. This assists in breaking the ice and letting team members learn more about each other. The team should also learn about what their project is all about as well as discuss the project’s goals/objectives and begin thinking about the various role(s) each will play in the team. When a conflict occurs within a team, the group leader should take firm control and should not allow others to begin wading into the argument by way of interrupting other speakers. All team members should remain silent and listen to their leader no matter how heated the conflict is. In order for a team to be effective it must be efficient, productive and cohesive and members must enjoy taking part in their various roles as well as working harmoniously together. The team must therefore be cohesive with all team members working together cooperatively and sharing co mmon resources and objectives (Zepeda, 2004).The leader in this case plays the role of building relationship of loyalty and trust rather than that of fear. The leader should be the harmonizing influence and should communicate clearly, facilitate communication as well as encourage all the team members to reveal and share information. Team members on the other hand should brainstorm, listen to their leader and each other, and obey the ground rules set by the

The Death Penalty Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

The Death Penalty - Research Paper Example Summary of the major issues, concepts and distinctionsThe death penalty is not a new phenomenon in the society, and it has been in existence over the last decades. Even today, many nations still practice death penalty including the US, who believes to be the human rights advocates. This was witnessed when it hanged the Iranian president, Saddam Hussein. There are still lingering and unanswered question regarding the death penalty. Many people believe that the continuous existence of death penalty in the 21st century compromises the role of the justice system. For instance, the justice system was established with the desire for rehabilitation but not retribution (Norman, 1995). Therefore, it is unconvincing to kill a convict because the justice system has made a judgment. To many people, the death penalty is immoral and unethical. Life is un-alienated right that everyone should enjoy. Hence, human rights activists believe that taking ones right more so natural right is immoral and une thical.The justice system of any nation has a role of rehabilitating the offenders so that they don't repeat the same crime. Because of this, the convicts are given another new chance to re-evaluate themselves and start a new life. Imposing death penalty on criminals is an indication of failed justice system as it is an unethical practice. As much as a person who commits capital offenses deserves capital punishment, the death penalty is harsh and compromises the role of humanity as well as natural rights (Norman, 1995).

Byzantine Constantinople Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Byzantine Constantinople - Essay Example However, the structures are also indicative of the insecurities felt by the royal family members despite their feelings of need to show status (Mango 39) C. The Basilica cistern considerably reveals political power resting on religiously affiliated personalities, but, that the authority does not render the ruling party immune to the vulnerabilities of the century, in as much as subjugation was the trend. The cistern itself apparently allows unobserved entrance and exit of ruling parties to and from their palace which were eventually turned into huge family mausoleums (Alpaslan 192). D. The architecture is a mixture of a typical Roman design for the famous colonnades and extensive spaces that indicates reputation, and those of the Greeks which are the rolling tendrils of vines with leaves another symbol of power and status. In addition, Christian cross carved on columns can not be mistaken for the influence of religion on the design. A. The Byzantinian church, Hagia Sophia in Istanbul Turkey is lavishly decorated with mosaic of murals of cherubs and holy people who have long gone but was considered as sacred. The edifice was believed to be constructed in AD 532. This was designed by architects Anthemius of Tralles and Isidrous of Miletus. During the Ottoman Empire, the church was converted into an Islamic Mosque. The decorations were all carefully plastered. This was to hide the images as they were a taboo to Islam. But, the plasters were torn off in 1935 to reveal the original images which were grandiose (Jack 75). B. Hagia Sophia was named as Christian Church of Divine Wisdom apparently because of the internal ornaments depicting colorful images of angels and saints constructed under the Roman Emperor who ruled Turkey. But, it was actually a tomb apparently designed for the Emperor and his family's mausoleum. C. The lavishness of Hagia Sophia is a reflection of Roman power in Constantinople. Additionally, authority is coupled to Christian religious affinity. D. The general architecture depicts the complexity of the ideas of the architects in both the interior and exterior part of Hagia Sophia. The posh internal decoration which is a mixture of colors and images represents an abode only meant for royalties. The focal part of the edifice are the vaults right under the biggest dome held by arching pillars and decorated by images of seraphs, saints and flowers in a rainbow of colors. Much similar to what most people usually call as paradise on land. E. Hagia Sophia is a total reflection of a creative mind or minds of people living in the past. It is also an edifice reflective of human desire to dwell in a sanctuary where only beauty exists even after death. 3. The Topkapi palace, Istanbul Turkey A. The Topkapi palace was the imperial palace of the Ottomans in 1465 while the sultans ruled Turkey. As the structure was intended for residence, its size and decorations emits an aura of power. Construction of the huge edifice took place in the 15th century. According to literatures, the palace is actually constructed with varied materials influenced by old structures in Turkey which is mostly of stones. Decorative designs

Customer Relationship Management (CRM) in Tourism-Related Hospitality Dissertation

Customer Relationship Management (CRM) in Tourism-Related Hospitality Establishments in Beijing, China - Dissertation Example ignificance of the Study 9 1.4 Purpose and Research Questions 9 Chapter 2 – Review of Relevant Literature and Research 12 2.1 Reasons Why Customer Relationship Management is Important for Tourism-Related Hospitality Establishments 13 2.2 Information and Computer Technologies and Customer Relationship Management Systems 15 2.3 Forces that Influence Customer Relationship Management Implementation Efforts in Organisations 17 2.4 Customer Relationship Management in Restaurants 18 2.5 Customer Relationship Management in Airlines 20 Chapter 3 – Methodology / Methods Used 23 3.1 Research Approach for the Dissertation Project 24 3.2 Preparation of a Literature Review 25 3.3 Design and Administration of the Survey Questionnaire 26 3.4 Analysis of the Survey Data 27 Chapter 4 – Data Analysis and Discussion 31 Chapter 5 –Conclusions, Recommendations and Suggestion for Further Work 122 Appendix A – Survey Questionnaire 125 Appendix B – Raw Data for the S urvey 135 Bibliography/ References 146 List of Figures Figure 4.1: Histogram depicting location of Tourism-Related Hospitality Establishments from Beijing Included in the Survey 34 Figure 4.2: Histogram depicting Annual Turnover of Hospitality Establishments in Beijing 36 Figure 4.3: Pie Chart depicting Number of Employees at Hospitality Establishments in Beijing Included in the Survey 37 Figure 4.4: Histogram depicting Designation of those responding to Survey Questionnaire from Hospitality Establishments in Beijing 38 Figure 4.5: Pie Chart depicting Departmental Affiliation of those responding to Survey Questionnaire from Hospitality Establishments in Beijing 39 Figure 4.6: Pie Chart depicting Satisfaction with Efforts made for Implementation of CRM Initiatives at Hospitality Establishments in Beijing 40 Figure 4.7:... From the research it can be comprehended that it is now important for hospitality establishments from around the world to understand how best to effectively manage relationships with customers. Times are difficult, and the rapidly changing business environment is highly competitive. Thus, it makes sense to try to retain customers and to make the right impression on all those who have had a first experience with a hospitality establishment, especially for establishments serving clients combining business with pleasure who may return. It is far more expensive to try to attract new customers than to try to retain the existing and during tough and competitive times, it is best for hotels to try to ensure that its clientele remain loyal. Thus, although academic literature and practical implementations of Customer Relationship Management (CRM) do not present a clear indication about what CRM is, it is clear that to know the customers and to serve them better it is important for a hospitali ty establishment to present superior interactions and knowledge about the customer. The use of information and communications technologies with data mining for knowledge gathering is now apparent in many hospitality establishments for supporting Customer Relationship Management and formulation of management strategy. Because CRM is about getting to know customers and their needs better, it is about implementing specific Information and Communication technology projects within an organisation to process organisational data to deliver knowledge about customers and their needs.

International Human Resource Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words - 2

International Human Resource Management - Essay Example The liberalized economy was responsible for creating a competitive environment which required prompt response in order to control and stabilize the sudden turbulence in the economy. It was crucial from both the perspective of organisations as well as the economy on the whole. Human resource management practices play a significant role in enhancing corporate performance (Som, 2008, p.1278). This report seeks to understand the factors which have evolved the role of the human resource departments in organisations in India, with emphasis on the labour laws in organisations. A discussion has also been provided pertaining to the system of education and training, trade unions, the system of collective bargaining and employer organisations. The project also speaks of the present trends and patterns of the human resource management practices in India. It provides a number of data and case studies of different organisations in the nation which highlights the different approaches in HRM. In thi s regard, the project also discusses the various problems and issues that organisations in the nation have been confronting with. Current patterns and trends in the approach to HRM in IndiaThe context of organisational success in India remains deeply rooted in the nation’s history and culture. The value system in society enriched with respect towards elders, the joint-family system, the trend of future savings as well as the British rule in India have impacted the development of the workplaces in India. The large agrarian society embeds the culture of hard work, labour dignity and the concept of sharing of responsibility which accounts for the key components of success of the firms in India. The nation’s democratic governance has enabled the policy makers and financial institutions for setting the foundation for the country’s success (Websu-kat, 2008, p.1). One of the most important points worth mentioning is that there have been huge investments made by the Gov ernment of the nation in the field of education and population control. Great investments coupled with assistance from the developed nations of the world have been the major factors in creating the nation’s value propositions in the international market. Together with its own set of strengths and weaknesses the nation is identified as one of the leading emerging economies in the world. It also has entered into trade relations with a number of nations in the world (Websu-kat, 2008, p.1). Few of the major determinants which make the Indian HRM different from the rest of the world are s follows: The culture in India is rooted deeply in its collective values which provides a tendency of maintaining collaboration in the place of

NTSB Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

NTSB - Essay Example The transport industry involves key players in the process of carrying out an investigation because of the knowledge they hold on specific issues. The central research process, however, is the responsibility of the National Transportation Safety Board. The party process is the involvement of other parties in the investigation process. Some of the agencies in the party process include the Federal Railroad Administration, the United States Coast Guard, and the Federal Highway Administration. The process aids the National Transportation Safety Board gather the required background data used in creating a report to the Board Members appointed by the President. The members of the board are the only five people given the mandate to determine the cause of an accident conclusively. An independent relationship between the parties limits the agencies in the party process (Mintzer 2012). The parties involved in causing an accident are not involved in the investigation to enhance the credibility of the process. The party process ensures that the research process is done in an effective way exhausting all the probabilities of the cause of the accident. The party process also assists the National Transportation Safety Board in the investigation of accidents by providing the necessary resources like skilled labor and technologic al tools to conduct the

To what extent do risk , rewards and motives contribute towards an Essay

To what extent do risk , rewards and motives contribute towards an entrepreneurs goals - Essay Example In other words, he is considered to have been a key figure in the entertainment and computer industry. He is largely accredited as the inventor of the iPod, Macintosh, the iPhone and the iTunes store amongst numerous others (Entrepreneur Staff, n.d.). His participation in modern- day business has contributed largely to the understanding that the design of a product plays an important role in its public appeal. This essay gives a discussion of the important lessons than can be learnt by entrepreneurs from Steve Jobs. Motivating factors for Entrepreneurs Entrepreneurship Innovation Theory The entrepreneurship theory of innovation by Joseph Schumpeter is used to explain the factors motivating entrepreneurs within an economy. The theory describes an entrepreneur as an individual who is creative, innovative and has a positive vision towards the future. Innovation occurs when an individual introduces a new product, new production method, a new entity in a given industry or discovers a new supply of raw materials (Kuratko, 2012: 122). The theory pays attention to innovation and disregards the risk taking capabilities of an entrepreneur. This model is based on a large-scale entrepreneur who is found in a developed economy. It ignores the small-scale entrepreneurs in developing economies as they imitate innovations in fast-paced economies rather than come up with new innovations. Basing on this theory is clear that Steve job was a creator and an innovator who came up with some of the most amazing innovations in the computer and entertainment industries. He was the inventor of the iPhone, iPod, the iTunes store, the Macintosh and finally, the iCloud in June 2011 before his death (Entrepreneur Staff, n.d.). Steve Jobs continuously came up with new products in the world of technology showing that an entrepreneur is one who comes up with groundbreaking innovations in a given industry. His is motivated by the drive to make things better in a particular industry. Theory of Hi gh Achievement/Theory of  Achievement Motivation McCelland’s theory of motivation stated that entrepreneurs are characterised by their ability to do things in a better way and ability to make decisions under uncertainty. The theory states that entrepreneurs have a higher achievement orientation. These people are not motivated by external factors or money (Kuratko, 2012:122). Profit is considered the best measure for competency and success. Steve Jobs had always managed to do things in a better an innovative way and wherever he worked, he succeeded in all his undertakings. He had co- founded Apple in his parents garage in 1976 but later left the company. He returned in 1997 when the company was on the verge of bankruptcy. As an entrepreneur, Steve Jobs has always been able to generate profits in all his engagements. For instance, his Apple to innovation in collaboration with Wozniak resulted to sales of over $200 million two years after its innovation. He made the first comp uter animated film ‘Toy Story’ that fuelled his success. He took up a job at Pixar and his 80 percent share was valued at $1 billion (Entrepreneur Staff, n.d.). As earlier stated, Apple’s loss in March 1997 was $708 million. Steve Jobs took over the position as the interim CEO. He entered into a partnership with Microsoft. The company recovered by the end of 1998 and its sales had soared to

Personal Development Portfolio Statement Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Development Portfolio - Personal Statement Example Upon knowing these things, I should have to deal and live with the working people, to the extent of doing their tasks to be able to know their lives and how they are coping up with their demands and queries and putting my self into situation for me is somewhat a sort of preparation. With this, I am confident to say that these things honed me to become sensitive with the needs of the people especially, the workforce. The uncertainty before becomes a clear picture of what it is to be with this kind of field. If we are to define Human Resource Management, according to McNamara (1999), it is defined as "The Human Resources Management (HRM) function includes a variety of activities, and key among them is deciding what staffing needs you have and whether to use independent contractors or hire employees to fill these needs, recruiting and training the best employees, ensuring they are high performers, dealing with performance issues, and ensuring your personnel and management practices conform to various regulations. Activities also include managing your approach to employee benefits and compensation, employee records and personnel policies" Upon analyzing the definition of HRM, it is evident that tremendous workloads and responsibilities are inclined with regards to this field thus; this should serve as guiding light for me. It is very important to know the definition of the field that you are into in order not to be swayed and to be guided accordingly as to what should I do in this field. I am now aware that variety of activities awaits me in doing tasks related to HRM. Dealing with the workforce doesn't end in recruiting key personnel that are qualified in a certain position but rather a continuous process of maintaining these individuals as well as ensuring their growth while doing tasks that would cater their needs. These things should be present in an HR specialist and these actual occurrences should beef-up my experience so they should not be taken for granted and that I was able to do and analyze while studying this field. The Use of theoretical modules is also important as they serve as references and guide to f urther enhance my knowledge in this kind of field. Personal Development Portfolio 3 While studying the modular approach of the program, my tutor Paul Smith is really a big help for me to understand different approaches to cope up with the demands of the said field. Of course, various exercises in these modules are aids that really enhanced my skill to the fullest. At first, it was quite hard but it becomes easier with every module after the other after determining the importance of Human Resource Management. My development and recruitment skills were also developed though I am engaged in a modular approach, which really helped me in determining the individuals who are capable for the job as well as how to maintain these people. Upon

Islam View on Pornography Essay Example for Free

Islam View on Pornography Essay Admonition on pornography from Quran and Hadith Islam on Pornography: A Definite No Such pictures, rather than curb or fulfill the desire, are designed to increase it inducing one to further prohibited acts and finally Zina (adultery or fornication). This is corroborated by the hadith of the Prophet (peace and blessings be upon him) appearing in both Al-Bukhari and Muslim explaining the different categories of adultery: Lustful glances constitute Zina of the eyes. Listening (to flirtations or lewd talks or songs) constitute Zina of the ears. (Licentious and lewd) speech constitutes Zina of the tongue. The (lustful) grip of the hand constitutes its Zina, and the movement of the feet (toward the act of Zina) is likewise. The heart lusts and desires. These are then either fulfilled by the private parts or rejected. † (Riyad As-Saliheen) Verses From Al-Quran Surely God enjoins justice, kindness and the doing of good, to kith and kin; and He forbids all that is shameful, indecent, evil, rebellious and oppressive. Allah knows best. He knows His creation. He knows that we are weak. Therefore, He likes us to stay away from shameful things. Verily those who love that indecenc Sahih Muslim Dont expose your thigh to anyone and dont look at the thigh of any person even if s/he is dead. Narrated Ali ibn abi Talib. Ibn e Maja, Abi Dawud, Darqutani. Tafseer Kabeer Allah has written for Adams son his share of adultery which he commits inevitably. The adultery of the eyes is the sight (to gaze at a forbidden thing), the adultery of the tongue is the talk, and the inner self wishes and desires and the private parts testify all this or deny it. Abu Hurairah. Bukhari, Muslim, Abu Dawud.

Phage Therapy to Treat Bacterial Infections

Phage Therapy to Treat Bacterial Infections Introduction Bateriophages The word bacteriophage, which is a name for bacterial viruses, means â€Å"eater of bacteria.† These viruses parasitize and kill bacteria. Pioneering work on the genetics of bacteriophages in the middle of the twentieth century formed the foundation of more recent research on tumor-causing viruses and other kinds of animal and plant viruses. In this way bacterial viruses have provided an important model system. A bacteriophage is a bacterial parasite. By itself, a phage can persist, but it cannot replicate except within a bacterial cell. Most phages possess genes encoding a variety of proteins. (Ringo John) Discovery and Significance Bacteriophages, viruses that infect or kill bacteria, were discovered by Frederick W. Twort in England in 1917 independently. Twort observed that bacterial colonies sometimes underwent lysis (dissolved and disappeared) and that this lytic effect could be transmitted from colony to colony. Even high dilutions of material from a lysed colony that had been passed through a bacterial filter could transmit the lytic effect. However, heating the filtrate destroyed its lytic property. From these observations Twort suggested that the lytic agent might be a virus. D’Herelle rediscovered the phenomenon in 1917 (hence the term Twort –d’Herelle phenomenon) and coined the word bacteriophge, which means â€Å"bacteria eater.† He considered the filterable agent to be an invisible microbe- for example, a virus- that was parasitic for bacteria. (Pelczar) Since the bacterial hosts of phages are easily cultivated under controlled conditions, demanding relatively little in terms of time, labor, and space compared with the maintenance of plant and animal hosts, bacteriophages have received considerable attention in viral research. Furthermore, since bacteriophages are the smallest and simplest biological entities known which are capable of self replication, they have been widely used in genetic research. Much has been learned about host parasite relationship from these studies, which have provided a better understanding of plant and animal infections with viral pathogens. Thus the bacterium-bacteriophage interaction has become the model system for the study of viral pathogenicity. (Pelczar) General characteristics Bacterial viruses are widely distributed in nature. Phages exists for most, if not all, bacteria. With the proper techniques these phages can be isoalated quit easily in the laboratory. Bacteriophages, like all viruses, are composed of a nucleic acid core surrounded by a protein coat. Bacterial viruses occurring different shapes, although many have a tail through which they inoculate the host cell with viral nucleic acid. There are two main types of bacterial viruses: lytic, or virulent, and temperate or avirulent. When lytic phages infect cells, the cells respond by producing large numbers of new viruses. That is, at the end of the incubation period the host cell bursts or lyses, releasing new phages to infect other host cells. This is called a lytic cycle. In the temperate type of infection, the result is not so readily apparent. The viral nucleic acid is carried and replicated in the host bacterial cells from one generation to another without any cell lysis. However, temperate phages may spontaneously become virulent at some subsequent generation and lyse the host cells. In addition, there are some filamentous phages which simply â€Å"leak† out of cells without killing them. Types of Bacteriophages There are two types of bacteriophages. Virulent phages and Temperate phages Virulent phages :- As a result of reproduction, virulent phages destroy their host. For example :- T pahges or T1-T7 group of phages infect E.coli bacteria. Temperate Phages :- temperate phages do not kill their host and take over its machinery. For example :- Lambda phage (Study.com) Fig -1 Fates of Phages Morphology and Structure The electron microscope has made it possible to determine the structural characteristics of bacterial viruses. All phages have a nucleic acid core covered by a protein coat, or capsid. The capsid is made up of microbiological subunits called capsomeres. The capsomere consists of a number of protein subunits or molecules called protomers. Figure 1 shows the fine structure and anatomy of a common morphological form of the bacteriophage, one with a head and a tail. Fig. 2 Diagrammatic representation of coliphage Bacterial viruses may be grouped into six morphological types This type has a hexagonal head, a rigid tail with a contractile sheath, and tail fibers. This type has a hexagonal head similar to A. However, it lacks a contractile sheath, its tail is flexible, and it may or may not have tail fibers. This type is characterized by a hexagonal head and a tail shorter than the head. The tail has no contractile sheath and may or may not have tail fibers. This type has a head made up of large capsomeres, but has no tail. This type has a head made up of small capsomeres, but has no tail. This type is filamentous. Types A, B, and C Show a morphology unique to bacteriophages. The morphological types in groups D and E are found in plant and animal viruses as well. The filamentous form of group F is found in some plant viruses. Fig – 3 Types of Bacteriophages Phage Structure Most phages occur in one of two structural forms, having either cubic or helical symmetry. In overall appearance, cubic phages are regular solids or, more specifically, polyhedral; helical phages are rod-shaped. Polyhedral phages are icosahedral in shape. (The icosahedrons is a regular polyhedron with 20 triangular facets and 12 vertices.) This means that the capsid has 20 facets, each of which is an equilateral triangle; these facets come together to form the 12 corners. In the simplest capsid, there is a capsomere at each of the 12 vertices; this capsomere, which is surrounded by five other capsomeres, is termed as a penton. For example, the φX174 exhibits the simple capsid. In larger and more complex capsids, the triangular facets are subdivided into a progressively larger number of equilateral triangles. Thus a capsid maybe composed of capsomeres but it is still based on the simple icosahedrons model. The elongated heads of some tailed phages are derivatives of the icosahedrons. For example the head of the T2 and T4 phages is an icosahedron elongated by one or two extra bands of hexons. Rod-shaped viruses have their capsomeres arranged helically and not in stacked rings. An example is the Bacteriophages M13. Some bacteriophages, such as the T-even coliphages (T2, T4 and T6), have very complex structures, including a head and a tail. They are said to have binal symmetry because each virion has both an icosahedral head and a hollow helical tail. Phage Nucleic Acids Different morphological types of phages are also characterized by having different nucleic acid types. All tailed phages contain double-stranded DNA. The phages with large capsomeres and the filamentous ones have single-stranded DNA. Group E phages have single-stranded RNA. The DNAs of phages are circular under certain conditions. The DNA of phage φX174 is circular both in the virion and in the host cell. The DNA of phage lambda is linear in the virion, but on entering the host cell the cohesive ends join to form a circle. Infection of bacteria by phages Most bacteria are susceptible to attack by bacteriophages. A phage consists of a nucleic acid â€Å"chromosome† (DNA or RNA) surrounded by a coat of protein molecules. Phage types are identified not by species names but by symbols – for example, phageT4, phage lambda, and so forth. During infection, phage attaches to a bacterium and injects its genetic material into the bacterial cytoplasm. The phage genetic information then takes over the machinery of the bacterial cell by turning off the synthesis of bacterial components and redirecting the bacterial synthetic machinery to make phage components. Newly made phage heads are individually stuffed with replicates of the phage chromosome. Ultimately, many phage descendants are made and are released when the bacterial cell wall breaks open. This breaking open process is called lysis. The population of phage progeny is called the phage lysate. Commercial production of Phages In D’Herelle’s laboratory against various bacterial infections five phage preparations were produced. That phage preparations are Bacte-coli-phage, Bacte-rhino-phage, Bacte-intesti phage, Bacte-pyo-phage and Bacte-staphy phage. In the United States therapeutic phages were also produced. Seven phage product for human use produced by the Eli Lilly company in the 1940s including preparations against Staphylococci, Sreptococci, E.coli, and other bacterial pathogen. These preparations contains phage-lysed, bacteriologically sterile broth cultures of the targeted bacteria. These preparations were used against various infections including wounds, vaginitis, acute and chronic infections of the upper respiratory tract, abscesses and mastoid infections. In most of the Western World commercial production of therapeutic phages ceased because of controversy. But in Eastern Europe and in the former Soviet Union the use of phages continued therapeutically together with or instead of antibiotics. (Sulakvelidze.,et.al,2001) Phage therapy Pharmacokinetics Pharmacology is the study of drug’s impact on the body and body’s impact on the drugs. These two concepts are known as pharmacodynamics and pharmacokinetics. In the concept of body, while considering anti microbial as drugs which includes both normal body tissues and the numerous symbiotic micro-organisms. Here we consider only pharmacokinetic aspect of phage therapy pharmacology. Pharmacokinectics describes drug’s potential that are sufficient to achieve primary pharmacodynamic effects. This description is distinguished into absorption, distribution, metabolism and excretion components. Drug movement into the blood is absorption, drug movement into other body tissues is distribution, modification of drugs within the body is metabolism, and movement of drugs out of the body is excretion. These four pharmacokinetic aspects have the effect of both reducing and increasing drug densities. In the case of absorption and distribution, drug densities declines due to drug dilution and at the same time drug density increases in specific body compartments. Metabolism results phage inactivation due to phage interaction with immune systems or â€Å"activation† such as phage in situ replication. Excretion can reduce of drug densities in the body, it can also increased drug densities in bladder with therapeutic benefits. The success of phage therapy depends on generation of sufficient phage densities in the vicinity of the target bacteria to cause bacterial removal from the body at some adequate rate. Sufficient densities of phage will increase either to in situ replication which is a active treatment, or a consequence of what can be described as pharmacologically conventional dosing, is called passive treatment. (Abedon et al,2011) Potential benefits Phage therapy offers a possible alternative to conventional antibiotic treatments for bacterial infections. Phages are very specific to target one or a few strains of bacteria. Traditional antibiotics kill both harmful bacteria and useful bacteria such as those facilitating food digestion. The specificity of phages might reduce the chance that useful bacteria are killed when fighting on infection. Phages have ability to travel to a required site including brain. (Wikipedia.org) Phages are natural antimicrobial agents to fight bacterial infections in humans, in animals or in crops of agricultural importance. Phages have hygiene measure in hospitals and in food production facilities. (Brussow Harald) Alternatives to antibiotics Phage is a viable alternative to antibiotics. The collapse of antibiotics and emergence of harmful and drug resistant bacteria, phage therapy starts again and is being reintroduced. Phage therapy has many potential applications in human medicine, veterinary science and agriculture. Specificity – Phages are more specific than antibiotics, means one phage will only attack and eat one particular bacteria and no other. Each infection needs a particular phage to treat it. To improve the chances of success phage mixtures are applied or samples can be taken and an appropriate phage identified and grown. Phages can be chosen to be indirectly harmless not only to the host organism, but also to other beneficial bacteria, such as gut flora, thus reduce the chances of infections. Phage therapy give rise to few side effects. Phages replicates inside the patient, a smaller effective dose may not even be necessary. Currently phages are used therapeutically to treat bacterial infections that do not respond to conventional antibiotics particularly in Russia and Georgia. (Prof. Kieth) Need to study Phages As we saw research on phages and a lack of knowledge on phage biology affects on clinical failure. The emergence of antibiotics wiped out further research on medical use of phages. After many years, a new problem of bacterial resistance to use of antibiotic has arisen. Bacteria become resistant to drug used in modern medicine by adapting themselves. Problems created in treating patients in hospitals due to the emergence of modified pathogens such as S.aureus, P. aeruginosa, Acinetobacter baumannii and Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Time required to produce new antibiotic is much larger than the time of bacterial adaptation. Therapeutic Uses of Phages and Antibiotics Conclusion For phage therapy multidrug resistant bacteria have opened a second window. (Carlton,1999) Phage therapy is the therapeutic use of lytic phages to treat bacterial infections. It is an alternative to antibiotics developed for clinical use. Phages are more specific than antibiotics that are in clinical use. This therapy is harmless to eukaryotic hosts undergoing therapy and should not affect normal beneficial flora of the host. Theoretically a single small dose is effective. Specificity is the disadvantage because specific phage will only kill a bacterium if it is a match to the specific subspecies. Thus, to improve the chances of success, phage mixture may be applied or clinical samples can be taken and suitable phage identified and grown. In the country of Georgia phages are used to treat bacterial infections therapeutically. (Todar Kenneth)

The Power Of Margaret Thatcher

The Power Of Margaret Thatcher The coming to power of Margaret Thatcher in March 1979 was in a context marked by the 1970s in England by crisis in economic, social, political and cultural. The crisis was economical with the 1973 oil crisis, the deindustrialisation, the negative growth in 1974-1975, the rise of unemployment, and the high level of inflation. The crisis is with the social movements of strikes that paralyzed the country, and mass unemployment. The crisis is political with the growing power of unions fighting for wage claims. Unions refuse limitation to 5% of the increase in base salaries that wants to impose the Callaghan government. Winter 1979, called Winter of Discontent, saw successive strikes increasingly unpopular which paralyzed the country. In this winter of Discontent, two out of three manufacturing companies were affected by strikes and stoppages. (Norman Gash, Madsen Pirie, 1989, p2). And finally, the cultural crisis is, in retrospect the success of the welfare state which does neither lead to growth nor full employment. We can not therefore underestimate the seriousness of the situation in Great Britain in the late 1970s. England was the British disease (Green, 2006, p55), through this study we will analyse how Margaret Thatcher and her administration drive the country with economic policy with the objective to break down the inflation and to enable Britain economy to recover balance growth. We will first explore whether it was a Thatcher Revolution? And in a second part we will see if this revolution was a success a miracle. Finally we analyze the statement. Margaret Thatcher won the elections in May 1979 and will be the first woman to rule England. Middle-class daughter of a grocer, she grew in an environment conducive to the Victorian values such as work, the emphasis on family, the sense of nationhood, and free enterprise. With these convictions, she adopted a policy and anti-interventionist philosophy (Green, 2006, p56) to rescue the British economys decline. It is in this context that the elections occur. Margaret Thatcher campaigned on the theme of British decline, socialism was for her as unmitigated evil, a perversion of human nature and a blight upon the land (Jenkis, 1989, p322) imposed by all-powerful unions, who have instilled in the population a culture of dependency. She undertakes to give priority to enterprise culture (Pugh, 1994, p20), free market, curb inflation and to curtail the role of the state (Pugh, 1994, p20). Thatcher decided to follow drastic measures (John Redwood, Madsen Pirie, 1989, P6). She easily wins the elections of May 1979: a vote clearly based on the discontent of the consensus state-employers-unions, became inoperative. She said in Perth during her campaign Today it is socialism which is in retreat and Conservativism which is advancing..'(Jenkins, 1989, p323) Margaret Thatcher created the political revolution has profoundly changed the political life, breaking with the values advocated by the Keynesian model: her primary objective was to fight against inflation before unemployment, she wanted the free market, she seeks to reduce trade union power, and reduce taxes to encourage growth. The Right Approach to the Economy is directly inspired by the partys program of 1970, and monetarist theories of Milton Friedman as the liberalism of Friedrich Hayek. For monetarist, price rises could be restrained by restricting the supply of money to the economy (Pugh, 1989, p303). She wanted to roll back the frontiers of the state (Jenkins, p369) and refocus on its natural function: to guarantee the currency, maintaining public order and National defense. The liberalization of the economy has performed under four themes: the affirmation of the primacy of the market, privatization of some public sector, reform of labour relations and tax reform. The assertion of the primacy of the market was made in 1979 by removing a certain number of controls over income, prices, dividends and wages. Inflation led to price controls, wage controls in order to combat rising public spending (Madsen Pirie, 1989, p12). The government has effectively abolished the incomes policy and price from Callaghan government. The decision made by Thatcher to curb inflation by monetary means was an excellent decision, the value of the British currency has risen and has helped to make the British economy more attractive to investors. (Madsen Pirie, 1989, p12). In mid 1980s, Lord Young was responsible for the deregulation unit and made good progress and results; however, the government was faced with the necessity to regulate the financial services industry, to regulate privatized telephone and gas companies to comply with the creation of an integrated European market (John Redwood, Madsen Pirie, 1989, P12). Deregulation enabled substantial improvement in cus tomer service with lower prices and better services in airline and bus industry. (John Redwood, Madsen Pirie, 1989, P13) Then there was the liberalization of capital movements began in July 1979 that accelerated the internationalization of the British economy and stimulated the activities of the City of London. Mergers, investment of foreign multinationals have thus been encouraged and Great Britain was the European country most open to Japanese investment since 10 years. After a trip to Japan in 1982, Mrs Thatcher did not hesitate to encourage Nissan to set up factories in Britain; it was realized the following year. The export of the British capital has enabled the UK to continue to invest heavily abroad (Leruez, 1991, p146), and assets of the UK exceed 100 billion pounds by the end of 1988. This liberalization of the economy was completed in October 1986 by the deregulation of activities in the City in London. Despite the competition of other capital markets, this revolution has allowed London to maintain its role as a leader and pioneer in the financial industry (Leruez, 1991, p146). Although the privatizations program the most unique success (Madsen Pirie, 1989, p10) is now considered as en essential reform of the Thatcher government, it should be noted that it was not given an importance in the election manifesto of 1979. This show the inherently adaptable character of the action of Mrs Thatcher (Leruez, 1991, p147), and became the centre piece of the Thatcher Revolution (Jenkins, 1989, p370). The economic justifications of denationalization are the following: decrease the influence of state and the political decision making on the economy, increased efficiency and innovation of companies, decentralizing economical decision and negotiations of wages and working conditions. Major privatizations (Britoil, British Telecom, British Gas) and most symbolic (Rolls Royce, privatization of water) (Leruez, 1991, p147) started between 1979-1983. The privatization process enabled success of major industries, British Airways became highly profitable and successful airline. (Madsen Pirie, 1989, p10). Even the British steel became in Europe the most productive and profitable. The Privatization of Jaguar was considered as a signal for a major change of attitudes in that company, with improvement of quality of product, with emphasis on training, cooperation from de workforce as shareholders (Madsen Pirie, 1989, p11). Between 1983 and 1987 under the second term of Mrs. Thatchers privatization program will bring more than 10 billion pounds, or 5 times more than the previous. Privatization enabled companies to decide by themselves concerning investments, strategies, and became synonymous with popular ownership (Jenkins, 1989, p370). In 1978-1979, thirteen out of the eighteen have been privatized (Madsen Pirie, 1989, P11). Harold McMillan denounced privatisation as selling the family silver.(should I give a comment for this, please help me) (Pugh, 1994, p317). In 1988, the public sector accounted for only 4% of employment and 7% of GDP. Its about the quarter of the public sector companies transferred to the private sector and 600,000 employees transferred from the public to private sector (Jenkins, 1989, p369). Thatcher encourages the liberalization of initiative; indeed, we observed the growth of entrepreneurship, more of one million opted to set up their own companies between 1979 and 1987. (Madsen Pirie, 1989, p15). As new opportunities have been allowed for people working in the deregulated sectors (public transport, air transport, catering) which adhere to the advantage of markets and competition. Private companies have realized the importance of quality, training and research and development. (Madsen Pirie, 1989, p15) In the mid 1980s, England experienced a significant rise in industrial and commercial activity with an increased number of investments. Indeed, the North Sea industrial and commercial companies have achieved a rate of 8% return during the 1970s, which reached 4% in 1981, and increased beyond 10% in 1987. (Madsen Pirie, 1989, p15) Politically, Thatcher government has achieved one of its objectives: the expansion of public shareholding. Shareholders were now outnumbering unionized in the adult population: 20% against 3% in 1979. In addition, three quarters of these new shareholders will own shares in newly privatized companies. (Leruez, 1991, p150). There was a revolution by the expansion of shareholding, one in five of the population become shareholders (Jenkins, 1989, p369). From 1979 to 1987, there was an increased from 7 to 20 per cent of the owning shares of the population (Jenkins, 1989, p370) On the other hand, the government decided to implement strategies such as the housing programme to encourage home ownership at the expense of council housing (Madsen Pirie, 1989, p8). The extension of ownership was a revolution, a million council tenants purchased their own homes (Jenkins, 1989, p369) Others reforms were on trade unions in order to regulate their actions. The 1980 law on labour relations merely limit the company closed shop, to prohibit sympathy strikes. The 1982 Act is much more restrictive, yet it limits the closed shop by requiring that it be approved by 80% of staff concerned and for 5 years only. But it has other limitations: while giving a strict definition of a conflict of legal work, it increases the penalties for illegal actions, authorized or even just tolerated by the union involved, with potential fines. The 1984 Act contains mains provisions: It stipulates that a referendum, secret ballots (Jenkins, 1989, p370) of members must be held before the strike, without a prior vote conflict becomes illegal. The law requires the election of union executive (Jenkins, 1989, p370) every 5 years. With the 1984 Act, we passed from the definition of the legal framework of trade union action to the control of the internal democracy of trade unions. In 1979, the Briti sh trade unionism was 13 700 000 members or 54.6% of the workforce (Leruez, 1991, p153). In 1988, union members were only just over 10 000 000, the unionization rate fell to 35%. The primary cause of the decline in unionization is the fall in industrial employment (coal, steel) between 1979 and 1986. The culture that encourages individualism and the poor public image of unions led to the decline of unions. In 1987 only one per cent of voters would consider trade union power to be the chief issue facing the country, when in May 1979, 73 per cent of people had believed to be so. (Jenkins, 1989, p369). The marginalised membership in Trade unions shows the revolution in the British beliefs, mentalities and is the most singular of her [Thatcher] achievements (Jenkins, 1989, p370) The Strikes launched against Thatcher or during Thatcher Administration have been failures (The steel strike in 1980, The strike of public service in 1981). The defeat of the miners in 1984 after a conflict during a year from March 1984 to March 1985 marked a turning point. It was a revolution, the government has managed to resist and endure for a year of strikes in the coalfields and put an end to Arthur Scargill actions. (Jenkins, 1989, p369) The other structural reform in the economy was the taxation. This reform is directly linked with the general objective of liberation of the individual initiative and to decrease the weight of government on individuals and on businesses. The VAT rate is replaced by a single rate of 15%. The corporate tax decreased from 50% to 35%, but employer contributions to the functioning of social security had greatly increased (under Labour was down). However, individual contributions to Social Security grew faster than the cost of living. The general effect of this global redistribution of taxes was an increase of the poorer part of the population poverty with the existence of inequalities in income and living conditions across regions. (Leruez, 1991, p157) Through these reforms, the government had a budget surplus of 3, 6 billon pounds in fiscal year 1987-1988 and 14 billion from 1988-1989 (including 6 billion pounds from privatizations) The Thatcher measures helped the British economy to perform: between 1979-1983, productivity was 2, 1%, above EEC and OECD performances. Between 1982 and 1988, Britain will record better results than the major OECD partners (Layard Nickell, 1989, p215). The brutal measures of 1979-1981 have allowed a dramatic improvement in the years 1982-1988, which shows the undoubted vitality of the economy. (Leruez, 1991, p159). This miracle some observers said that something surprising has happened to British productivity (Layard Nickell, 1989, p215). Thatcher actions in 1979, by doubling the VAT and suppression of the incomes policy had consequence on increase of the inflation in 1980. In 1979 inflation was 13, 2% and decreased to 5,6% in 1988, a decrease of 7,6 points. (Layard Nickell, 1989, p216). After 12 years of Thatcherism, we highlight structural problems in the British economy: For Jenkins (1989, p329), the greatest failure of the Thatcher Revolution has been in the application of market economics to the Welfare state. The priority of the government was to get rid of inflation before creating employment. (Madsen Pirie, 1989, p13) Unemployment double from 4,7% in 1979 to 8,5% in 1988 and concerned primary wage earners (Layard Nickell, 1989, p216). We thought that in 1986, unemployment fell but in reality it was a decrease of the number of people receiving benefits (Layard Nickell, 1989 p216). The Government created training programmes such as Manpower Services Commission (Madsen Pirie, 1989, p13) but it was a mismatch between skills demanded and skills held by the unemployment (Layard Nickell, 1989, p218). The inadequacy compounded by the socio-economic disparities between regions: Development disparities between north and south of England have increased since the rece ssion of 1979 to 1982. In January 1987 there were 1 740 800 unemployed in the North and 1 185 000 in the South. In January 1989, there were 1 878 000 unemployed in the whole country, 1 102 700 in the North. 94 per cent of the 1979-1986 job losses had been in the Midlands and the North (Jenkins, 1989, p330). Immobility of labour and the decline in manufacture explained theses regional disparities. (Jenkins, 1989, p330) The Two nations, The privileged and the People (Jenkins p372) as Disraeli described characterised the polarisation (Jenkins, 1989, p372) of the British population with the emergence of two entirely different socio-economic systems (Andrew Broadbent in New Society, 14 May 1986, quoted in Jenkins, 1989, p372). Inequality increased by inequality in pre-tax earning and even by the unequal distribution of the average direct tax rates. The number of families with children in poverty rose by 580,000 to 1,171,000 in 1986 (Church of England, Not just for the Poor, 1986, p46) Nigel Lawson characterised the economic growth improvement by 4% between 1883 and 1988 as economic miracle. The measures implemented have reduced inflation from 22% in 1980 to 7% in 1985 and a decrease of 3% in 1986. (Pugh, 1989, P306). However, deep-seated problems of the economy remained (Pugh, 1989, p304) with a high level of unemployment. (3,2 millions in 1985) (Pugh, 1989, p306). This economic miracle defined by Nigel Lawson was actually an economic mirage: The rise of the demand for consumer goods has been artificial, it rested on an inflated debt and spending on imports helped to unbalance trade deficits with more than  £15 billion from 1988 to 1989. (Pugh, 1989, p306). The Statement of Thatcher may be compared to important social marginalization of a significant proportion of the population that appears even in the unemployment statistics a disaster. It was a revolution; in that she broke sharply with the principles that guided economic policy in Britain since 1945 (Callaghan, Healey Government, Welfare State, Keynesianism policy). They [Ronald Reagan, Margaret Thatcher] were revolutionaries in their thinking and in their ability to inspire others to accept fundamental change (Martin Feldstein, Project Syndicate, 2009), and also because it was implemented as a routine set of ideas that were a world view. Peter Jenkins (1989) returns to his ascension, puts into context and shows how her policy in stark contrast with everything that has been done before. Margaret Thatcher was indeed a revolution, a political belief, a philosophy and style beyond the umpteenth administration, yet another government. There is a before and after Thatcher, was discovered here in what her legacy will be decisive for the British political landscape for years to come. For Martin Feldstein (2009), Margaret Thatcher brought such profound improvements that there is no going back. Regarding to the miracle, it must be taken to mean economic miracle, because in the 1970s, Britain was really the sick man of Europe. The growth, prosperity and productivity performance in England can be considered as a miracle. However, this revolution does not take advantage and do not concern the whole population. Jenkins used the word half revolution, because Britain remains divided into Two nations, but at the same time two ideals between the new Enterprise ideal and the Welfare ideal.(Jenkins,1989, p378) Thatcher modified the British economic governance (Green, 2006 p56), she neglected the human consequences of her economic policies. The reforms of Mrs Thatcher allowed her to fully address the globalization of the years 1980-1990.

The Battle of King Philip II Augustus of France Essay -- Ancient Hist

King Philip II Augustus of France wasn’t by any means a physically strong individual, but his strengths lay in his grasp of both political and military strategy. He was almost constantly involved in wars from 1180 to 1215. He was fighting his vassals, other kings, both of them together, it didn’t matter; Philip would use political treachery and military tactics to defeat his opponents. When one looks at Philip’s life they notice almost instantly that Philip was constantly fighting someone from the day he became King, to the day he died. Philip was born in Gonesse on August 21st of 1165, his father Louis was determined to have Philip succeed him on the throne; as such Philip was raised with all the training necessary to become a king, he was taught in the ways of politics and war (Smedley 52). All was going to plan until Philip turned thirteen, on a royal hunt; he was separated from his companions and became lost in a forest. He spent hours attempting to find a way out, until he was exhausted by the cold and hunger. Eventually a peasant found him; but this event had caused him to become extremely ill, he contracted a dangerously high fever. His father Louis VII distraught by his son’s illness undertook a pilgrimage to the Shrine of Thomas Becket, in order to pray for his son’s recovery (Smedley 55). He was told that his son had finally recovered, and began his journey back to Paris. On the return journey he suffered a terrible stroke; this began the decline of his health, and eventually leads to hi s death (Smedley 55). Knowing that his health was declining and that he would not be able to lead for much longer, he understood that if he wanted to have Philip succeed him he must act quickly as there were parties at play that w... ...cture, but to anticipate future moves. He deviated from the traditional methods of viewing war as a game of chess, but understood that more elements could be utilized. Through his military history we see wonderful examples of him using rebellions and political means to destabilize military operations of his opponents. He was truly a master of psychological, political, and traditional warfare, and quite possible one of the finest political and military strategists of the Middle Ages. Works Cited The New Encyclopaedia Britannica. Chicago: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2007. Print. Rees, Simon. "King Richard I of England Versus King Philip II Augustus." Military History Magazine Sept. 2006: 1-5. Print. Smedley, Edward. The History of France, from the Final Partition of the Empire of Charlemagne to the Peace of Cambray. London: Baldwin and Cradock, 1836. Print. The Battle of King Philip II Augustus of France Essay -- Ancient Hist King Philip II Augustus of France wasn’t by any means a physically strong individual, but his strengths lay in his grasp of both political and military strategy. He was almost constantly involved in wars from 1180 to 1215. He was fighting his vassals, other kings, both of them together, it didn’t matter; Philip would use political treachery and military tactics to defeat his opponents. When one looks at Philip’s life they notice almost instantly that Philip was constantly fighting someone from the day he became King, to the day he died. Philip was born in Gonesse on August 21st of 1165, his father Louis was determined to have Philip succeed him on the throne; as such Philip was raised with all the training necessary to become a king, he was taught in the ways of politics and war (Smedley 52). All was going to plan until Philip turned thirteen, on a royal hunt; he was separated from his companions and became lost in a forest. He spent hours attempting to find a way out, until he was exhausted by the cold and hunger. Eventually a peasant found him; but this event had caused him to become extremely ill, he contracted a dangerously high fever. His father Louis VII distraught by his son’s illness undertook a pilgrimage to the Shrine of Thomas Becket, in order to pray for his son’s recovery (Smedley 55). He was told that his son had finally recovered, and began his journey back to Paris. On the return journey he suffered a terrible stroke; this began the decline of his health, and eventually leads to hi s death (Smedley 55). Knowing that his health was declining and that he would not be able to lead for much longer, he understood that if he wanted to have Philip succeed him he must act quickly as there were parties at play that w... ...cture, but to anticipate future moves. He deviated from the traditional methods of viewing war as a game of chess, but understood that more elements could be utilized. Through his military history we see wonderful examples of him using rebellions and political means to destabilize military operations of his opponents. He was truly a master of psychological, political, and traditional warfare, and quite possible one of the finest political and military strategists of the Middle Ages. Works Cited The New Encyclopaedia Britannica. Chicago: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2007. Print. Rees, Simon. "King Richard I of England Versus King Philip II Augustus." Military History Magazine Sept. 2006: 1-5. Print. Smedley, Edward. The History of France, from the Final Partition of the Empire of Charlemagne to the Peace of Cambray. London: Baldwin and Cradock, 1836. Print.

Tin :: essays research papers

Tin Tin's discoverer is unknown but one thing is known. Tin has been used and discovered by the ancients. Tin was an accidental discovery. Tin has been around for many years. Proof is in the fact that tin is mentioned in the old testament of the bible. Tin had a great effect on the world because of its low price, high electric conductivity, and because tin protects against rust and weak acids in food if the can is made out of tin instead of aluminum. Some common compounds of tin are organtin a combination of carbon and tin. When tin is formed with carbon to make organtin it can make more than 500 organtin compounds. These compounds are used in everyday things. One is toothpaste containers and also are things such as wood, paper, textile, farm sprays, and Hospital disinfectants. To get pure tin you must first find ore cassiterite or tin stone, a dioxide of tin. The ore cassiterite before smelting and roasting must be crushed into a powder to remove the arsenic and sulfur from the ore cassiterite. When you smelter the tin you must heat it with carbon to remove the zinc, copper, bismuth, and iron from the tin. Tin had been used for many things but tins use is dropping rapidly although tin is still used a lot for plating. Plating such things as electical contacts. Tin is also used as a protective coating. This protective coating can be as small as 15/1,000,000 of an inch. This protective coating protects against rust on steel and other metals. A coating of tin also gives a great look to plain old steel. Tin cans for food prevents weak acids from damaging the inside of the can. Not many cans are made of tin since aluminum started to be used for cans tins use dropped sharply. Tin is also used to coat staples, pins, bronze bell, pewter pitchers and many others things. Another popular tin mixture is tin and lead. Tin and lead make solder for electric work. Battery contacts in the Black and Decker snake lights are also tin plated. A compound tin salt is used to spray onto glass windows to produce electrically conductive coating for panel lighting and frost free windshields for cars. One last use for tin is in the making of glass windows that are made by floating molten glass on molten tin. This produces a flat piece of glass to be used as a windows. Industries basically only use tin for plating for electricity or for protection on there metals such as tin. Tin is found in Molaya, Bolivia, Indonesia, Zaire, Thailand, Nigeria, but